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The American Revolution as affected by the Muslim World – Part I
(Continued - Page 3)
Encounter with Muslim States
After the Treaty of Paris of 1783 between Britain and the United States the British Royal Navy stopped protecting American Merchant ships in the Mediterranean. The semiautonomous Ottoman regencies of Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis were indirectly supporting these so-called Barbary pirates to collect tribute from the American merchant ships. These pirates captured Westerners and sold them as slaves. The United States could not afford to have her own navy; therefore they had no choice, but to pay tribute to the Barbary States.
The United States Congress in the month of June, 1786, authorized John Adams, Jefferson and Franklin to negotiate a “Treaty of Peace and Friendship” with the Moroccan ruler Sidi Muhammad. This was to solidify our friendship as Morocco was not part of any conflict with the United States.
In 1797 a Treaty of Tripoli was signed between the United States and Tripoli Government under the title of “Treaty of Peace and Friendship.” The purpose of this Treaty was to settle the issue of payment of tribute to Tripoli.
Over the next fifteen years, the United States paid up to one million dollars per year, in ransom and tribute to these states. This amount was around twenty percent of the United States annual revenue. In 1801, after becoming the President, Thomas Jefferson refused to pay more than the eighty thousand dollars as agreed by the treaty with the ruler of Tripoli. In May 1801 Jefferson dispatched a group of Navy ships to the Mediterranean to challenge the pirates. In fifteen years, the United States was able to build a strong Navy. After a long conflict known as the Barbary Coast War or the Tripolitan War, in 1805 the war came to an end. A peace treaty was signed on June 10, 1805 by the Tripoli ruler and the United States. Prisoners were exchanged and the United States had to pay sixty thousand dollars. The United States was then given free trade and navigation rights in the Mediterranean.
United States and Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire was born before 1300 and lasted until World War I. It was the most extensive, greatest and long – lasting of empires in the history of the world. At the birth of United States, The Ottoman Empire’s position was that of a super power during that time. The Ottoman Empire held the area of the Northern Balkans and the territories of the Eastern Romans’ Empire.
During this time, another strong Muslim Dynasty was that of the Mogul Empire and it was the ruler of most of the Indian Subcontinent. The Moguls ruled India from 1526 to1857. At that time the estimated population of India was between 110 – 130 million in a territory of over 1.5 million square miles. The English were loosing their grip over the American Colonies at the same time that the East India Company of the British Empire was promoting trade with India. In 1857, the entire Indian sub-continent was colonized by the British Government.
In Iran, another strong Safavids (Persian) Muslim Empire was reaching the end of their rule. They ruled Iran from 1502 to 1736. Other Muslim rulers eventually took over the dynasty.
After independence, the United States needed to promote trade and commerce with the Ottoman Empire. Britain and France were making every effort to obstruct any negotiations between the leaders of the Ottoman Empire and the United States. American merchants in the Middle East had to pay exorbitant tariffs. America complained that they were mistreated by the kingdom of the Ottoman Empire. To complicate matters, America did not have an ambassador in Istanbul.
In 1819 John Adams started his efforts to achieve a United States and Ottoman Empire treaty. He understood the importance of developing friendly relationship with a superpower. The results of his efforts were to help America promote trade and commerce plus security for American travelers and Missionaries in the Orient.
The United States made several attempts to obtain a treaty with the Ottoman Empire which were beset by many difficulties. In 1821, Greek rebellions were trying to break away from the Ottoman Empire. Greece was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost four hundred years. It was a dilemma for the United States to support the Greeks and look out for their economic interests, or remain friendly with the Ottoman Empire. A large number of Americans thought it was a conflict between Islam and Christianity.
President James Monroe wanted to send military assistance to the Greeks. John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State, convinced Monroe that it would be against the Interest of the United States as we wish to seek a treaty with the Ottoman Empire. The American administration decided not to provide any aid to Greece and concentrated on achieving a treaty with the Ottoman Empire.
An American Muslim Envoy for Istanbul
John Adams selected a lawyer from New York, Luther Bradish who went to Istanbul disguised as a tourist. After making many unprofessional approaches to reach the proper contacts with the Sultan’s ministers, he could not achieve his goal. He did not have sufficient diplomatic skills and was called back to America.
George English was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He graduated from Harvard College with the highest academic award in 1807. He completed his Masters degree in theology in 1811. He was a poet, scholar and an authority on the Old and New Testament. During his studies at Harvard, he began to question Christianity and the New Testament. He authored a few books. One of the books was “The Grounds of Christianity Examined by Comparing the New Testament with the Old.” He later joined the Marine Corps during the War of 1812.
President James Madison commissioned English as a first lieutenant. He was send to the Mediterranean and was among the first citizens of the United States to have visited Egypt. Shortly after arriving in Egypt, English resigned from his commission. He developed a great deal of interest in studying Islam. He studied a 1688 version of an Italian translation of Islam’s holy book, the Quran. He embraced Islam and chose a Muslim name of “Muhammed Effendi”.
Mr. English became very fluent in the Arabic and Turkish languages. He was introduced to Ismail Pasha through the British Consul and created a very good impression on him.
Pasha hired him as a commander of an Egyptian artillery unit. In his new position, he led an action against Sudanese rebels.
George English (Muhammed Effendi) left Egypt in 1822 and came back to the United States. He wrote his memoir of the Sudan expedition. John Adams offered him another Government assignment. He was assigned as an American secret envoy to the Ottoman Empire. His job was to renew the efforts to achieve a treaty with the Ottomans. The United States did not have any diplomatic contact with Istanbul, so his first assignment was to cultivate a relationship with one of the high ranking ministers of the Sultan.
Muhammed arrived in Istanbul on November 5, 1823. He was instructed by John Adams to communicate very frequently with him by non diplomatic correspondence about his progress and also gather information regarding the political and commercial activities in the Kingdom. Muhammad adopted local clothing and started mingling with the high ranking Government Officials. Soon, some locals started to suspect him as a Greek spy.
He made contact with the sultan’s librarian. Through another connection, he was able to meet a very important contact, Husrev, a man who had an important position in the Ottoman military. He was very busy with the situation in Greece. During a conversation, Husrev told Muhammed about the bad intentions of the European countries desire to see the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire.
George English (Muhammed) assured Husrev that the United States does not have any territorial grabbing ideas. The United States would like to develop only mutual commercial relations with the Ottoman Empire.
John Adams assigned John Roger, a commander of the Mediterranean Squadron, to join George English in starting a conversation with the Ottomans, and achieve the same terms and conditions of the treaty which is enjoyed by the British and French. Probably John Adams was getting a little bit concerned about English’s strong attachment to the culture and faith of the land. After having a few exciting and warm meetings, the negotiations still could not move forward.
John Quincy Adams was elected to the Presidency of the United States for the term of 1825 to 1829. He started to support the idea of Greek independence. The Sultan decided to postpone the treaty negotiation. He said he will follow the advice of the British not to continue our negotiations with the United States.
On October 20, 1827, the Ottoman and Egyptian fleet were on their way to Southern Greece to quell their revolt. They were intercepted by Britain, France, and Russia and by Greek fleets near Navarino Bay (Pylos). America did not join the Europeans in this conflict. Though their sympathies were with Greece. America chose economic benefits over an armed conflict with the Ottomans.
George English (Muhammed ) became very upset and blamed Adams to lose our chance of having any treaty with the Ottoman Empire. The President was very frustrated for not having any treaty with Istanbul. Some people in Washington were unhappy with English. In their opinion, he was a traitor and he was loyal to the Sultan. Adams cut his ties with English and he was fired from his job. Muhammed sailed back to America in 1827. He died on September 20, 1828.
Continued on page 4 of 4 pages
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